Fraternities and sororities (from the Latin Latin is an Italic language historically spoken in Latium and Ancient Rome. Through the Roman conquest, Latin spread throughout the Mediterranean and a large part of Europe. Romance languages such as Italian, French, Catalan, Romanian, Spanish, and Portuguese are descended from Latin, while many others, especially European languages, including words frater and soror, meaning "brother" and "sister" respectively) are fraternal A fraternity is a brotherhood, though the term usually connotes a distinct or formal organization. The only true distinction between a fraternity and any other form of social organization is the implication that the members freely associate as equals for a mutually beneficial purpose, rather than because of a religious, governmental, commercial, social organizations A club is an association of two or more people united by a common interest or goal. A service club, for example, exists for voluntary or charitable activities; there are clubs devoted to hobbies and sports, social activities clubs, political and religious clubs, and so forth for undergraduate students Undergraduate education is education taken prior to gaining a first degree, hence in many subjects in many educational systems, undergraduate education is post-secondary education up to the level of a bachelor's degree, such as in the United States, where a university entry level is known as undergraduate, while students of higher degrees are. In English, the term refers mainly to such organizations at colleges and universities Higher education refers to a level of education that is provided by universities, vocational universities, community colleges, liberal arts colleges, institutes of technology and other collegiate level institutions, such as vocational schools, trade schools and career colleges, that award academic degrees or professional certifications in North America North America is the northern continent of the Americas, situated in the Earth's northern hemisphere and almost totally in the western hemisphere. It is bordered on the north by the Arctic Ocean, on the east by the North Atlantic Ocean, on the southeast by the Caribbean Sea, and on the west by the North Pacific Ocean; South America lies to the, although it is also applied to analogous European Europe is, by convention, one of the world's seven continents. Comprising the westernmost peninsula of Eurasia, Europe is generally divided from Asia to its east by the water divide of the Ural Mountains, the Ural River, the Caspian Sea, and by the Caucasus Mountains to the southeast. Europe is washed upon to the north by the Arctic Ocean and groups also known as corporations Generally, universities in the various European countries have student organizations called corporations. The name is derived from the Latin corporatio meaning a body or group. There was an earlier type of student organization, called a nation from the Middle Ages, where students from all over Europe at a particular university would unite. Similar, but less common, organizations also exist for secondary school Secondary school is a term used to describe an educational institution where the final stage of compulsory schooling, known as secondary education, takes place. It follows on from primary or elementary education students. In modern usage, the term Greek letter organization is often synonymous with the terms "fraternity" and "sorority".

Typically, Greek letter organizations are single-sex, initiatory Initiation is a rite of passage ceremony marking entrance or acceptance into a group or society. It could also be a formal admission to adulthood in a community or one of its formal components. In an extended sense it can also signify a transformation in which the initiate is 'reborn' into a new role. Examples of initiation ceremonies might organizations with membership considered active during the undergraduate years only, although a notable exception to this are historically black The National Pan-Hellenic Council is a collaborative organization of nine historically African American, international Greek lettered fraternities and sororities. The nine NPHC organizations are sometimes collectively referred to as the "Divine Nine." The member/partner organizations have not formally adopted nor recommended the use of, multicultural, and professional fraternities Professional fraternities, in the North American fraternity system, are organizations whose primary purpose is to promote the interests of a particular profession and whose membership is restricted to students in that particular field of professional education or study. This may be contrasted with service fraternities and sororities, whose primary, in which active membership continues, and into which members are often initiated long after the completion of their undergraduate degrees. Greek letter organizations may sometimes be considered mutual aid societies A benefit society or mutual aid society is an organization or voluntary association formed to provide mutual aid, benefit or insurance for relief from sundry difficulties. Such organizations may be formally organized with charters and established customs, or may arise ad hoc to meet unique needs of a particular time and place, providing academic and social activities. Some groups also maintain a chapter house North American fraternity and sorority housing refers largely to the houses or housing areas that fraternity and sorority members live and work together in. In addition to serving as housing, fraternity and sorority housing may also serve to host social gatherings, meetings, and functions that benefit the community, providing residential and dining facilities for members.

Contents

Terminology

In modern usage, the term Greek letter organization has become synonymous with the North American fraternity and sorority. The term fraternity, often colloquially A colloquialism is an expression not used in formal speech, writing or paralinguistics. Colloquialisms are also sometimes referred to collectively as "colloquial language". Colloquialisms or colloquial language is considered to be characteristic of or only appropriate for casual, ordinary, familiar, or informal conversation rather than shortened to "frat" (though use of such term may be disrespectful in some contexts), typically refers to an all-male group, while the term "sorority" typically refers to an all-female group. However, some women's groups define themselves as fraternities for women or women's fraternities, such as Delta Delta Delta Delta Delta Delta , also known as Tri Delta, is an international collegiate women's fraternity founded on November 27, 1888. With 136 chapters in the United States and Canada it is one of the largest women's organizations in the world,Kappa Alpha Theta Kappa Alpha Theta is an international women's fraternity founded on January 27, 1870 at DePauw University, formerly Indiana Asbury. Kappa Alpha Theta was the first Greek-letter women's college fraternity. The organization currently has over 125 chapters at colleges and universities across the United States and Canada with a total initiated, Zeta Tau Alpha, Alpha Phi Alpha Phi is a fraternity for women founded at Syracuse University on September 18, 1872. Its celebrated Founders Day is October 10.[citation needed] It was the third Greek-letter organization founded for women. In Alpha Phi the Greek letter Phi is pronounced "Fee". It is a common misconception that this pronunciation is because Phi, Delta Gamma Delta Gamma is one of the oldest and largest women's fraternities in the United States and Canada, with its Executive Offices based in Columbus, Ohio, Pi Beta Phi Pi Beta Phi is an international fraternity for women founded as I.C. Sorosis on April 28, 1867, at Monmouth College in Monmouth, Illinois. Its headquarters are located in Town and Country, Missouri, and there are 134 active chapters and over 330 alumnae organizations across the United States and Canada. Once an initiated member in good standing, Chi Omega, and Kappa Kappa Gamma Kappa Kappa Gamma is a college women's fraternity, founded at Monmouth College, in Monmouth, Illinois. Although the groundwork of the organization was developed as early as 1869, the 1876 Convention voted on October 13, 1870 as Founders Day, because no earlier charter date could be determined. This makes Kappa Kappa Gamma one of the older Greek-. Additionally, some groups that define themselves as "fraternities" may be mixed-sex, such as Kappa Kappa Psi; the same holds true for groups that define themselves as "sororities", such as Tau Beta Sigma Tau Beta Sigma is a co-educational national honorary band sorority dedicated to serving college and university bands. The Sorority, headquartered at the historic Stillwater Station in Stillwater, Oklahoma, numbers 3,000 active members in 140 active chapters, and over 40,000 alumni. Since 1947, Tau Beta Sigma has recognized Kappa Kappa Psi as ". Due to the ambiguous nature of the terms "fraternity" and "sorority" with respect to gender, and due to the inaccuracy and potential sexist nature of the use "fraternity" to describe aforementioned organizations, it has become commonplace to use the synonym Greek letter organization, since the vast majority of fraternities and sororities identify themselves using Greek letters. A recent example of this is the usage of the terms "(historically) Black Greek letter organizations" (BGLOs) and "Latino Greek letter organizations" (LGOs) within the literature. However, since most of those organizations that do not identify themselves using Greek letters are structured similarly to and share other several common characteristics with those that do identify themselves using Greek letters, all of these organizations are still considered to be "Greek letter organizations".

The term social fraternity is used to differentiate four-year, undergraduate, and frequently residential groups from other organizations, many of which also have Greek-letter names, such as honor societies In the United States, an honor society is an organization of rank, the induction into which recognizes excellence among one's peers. There are numerous societies recognizing various fields and circumstances; the Order of the Arrow, for example, is the national honor society of the Boy Scouts of America. Chiefly, the term refers to scholastic honor, academic societies, or service fraternities and sororities Service fraternity may refer to any fraternal public service organization, such as the Kiwanis or Rotary International. In Canada and the United States, the term fraternal organization is more common as "fraternity" in everyday usage refers to fraternal student societies.

The names of North American fraternities and sororities generally consist of two or three Greek Greek , an Indo-European language native to the southern Balkan peninsula, is the language of the Greeks. It forms an independent branch within Indo-European. It has the longest documented history of any Indo-European language, spanning 34 centuries of written records. In its ancient form, it is the language of classical Ancient Greek literature letters, often the initials of a Greek motto. For this reason, fraternities and sororities are referred to by the encompassing term “Greek letter organization” and described by the adjective "Greek," as seen in phrases such as Greek community, Greek system, Greek life, or members as Greeks. An individual fraternity or sorority is often called a Greek house or simply house, terms which may be regarded as misleading since the usage of a phrase with "house" in it may be taken to refer to a chapter's physical property North American fraternity and sorority housing refers largely to the houses or housing areas that fraternity and sorority members live and work together in. In addition to serving as housing, fraternity and sorority housing may also serve to host social gatherings, meetings, and functions that benefit the community whereas many fraternities and sororities do not have a chapter house; alternatively, chapter and organization are used in these contexts, with the latter referring to the group as a collective entity, and the former referring to a specific division of such entity, though not all fraternities and sororities have multiple chapters. The use of Greek letters started with Phi Beta Kappa Although each individual chapter determines its specific application of the Phi Beta Kappa Council's 1952 Stipulations Concerning Eligibility for Membership and sets its own academic standards, even the most generous chapter will typically elect fewer than 10% among the candidates for degrees at that university's College of Arts and Sciences (then a social fraternity and today an honor society) at the College of William & Mary The College of William & Mary in Virginia is a public research university located in Williamsburg, Virginia, United States. Founded in 1693 by a Royal Charter issued by King William III and Queen Mary II, it is the second-oldest institution of higher education in the United States. Several groups, however, do not use Greek letters. Examples include Acacia Acacia Fraternity is a Greek social fraternity originally based out of Masonic tradition. At its founding in 1904, membership was originally restricted to those who had taken the Masonic obligations, and the organization was built on those ideals and principles. Within one year, four other Masonic clubs received Acacia charters, which led to a, FarmHouse FarmHouse Fraternity International, Inc. is an all-male international social fraternity founded at the University of Missouri on April 15, 1905. It became a nationally recognized fraternity in 1921. FarmHouse is one of only a handful of fraternities not to adopt Greek letters. Today FarmHouse has 33 chapters/colonies in the United States and, and Triangle Triangle Fraternity is a social fraternity, limiting its recruitment of members to male students majoring in engineering, architecture, and the physical, mathematical, biological, and computer sciences. It is the only member of the North-American Interfraternity Conference to limit its membership recruitment to these majors, as well as final club, eating club An eating club is a social club found in American universities. Eating clubs date to the late 19th and early 20th centuries and are intended to allow college students to enjoy meals and pleasant discourse. Some clubs are referred to as bicker clubs because of the bickering process over which applicants to accept as members. Replaced largely by the and secret societies Secret society is a term used to describe a variety of organizations. Although the exact meaning of the term is disputed, several of the definitions advanced indicate a degree of secrecy and secret knowledge, which might include denying membership or knowledge of the group, negative consequences for acknowledging one's membership, strong ties at some Ivy League The Ivy League is an athletic conference comprising eight private institutions of higher education in the Northeastern United States. The term is most commonly used to refer to those eight schools considered as a group. The term also has connotations of academic excellence, selectivity in admissions, and social elitism colleges, such as Skull and Bones Skull and Bones is a secret society at Yale University in New Haven, Connecticut. The society's alumni organization, which owns the society's real property and oversees the organization's activity, is the Russell Trust Association, and is named after General William Huntington Russell, who founded the society with fellow classmate Alphonso Taft at Yale Yale College was the official name of Yale University from 1718 to 1887. The name now refers to the undergraduate part of the university. Each undergraduate student is assigned to one of 12 residential colleges.

Types of Greek letter organizations

Further information: List of social fraternities and sororities Social or general fraternities and sororities, in the North American fraternity system, are those that do not promote a particular profession or discipline (such as service fraternities and sororities). Instead, their primary purposes are often stated as the development of character, literary or leadership ability, or a more simple social purpose, service fraternities and sororities Service fraternity may refer to any fraternal public service organization, such as the Kiwanis or Rotary International. In Canada and the United States, the term fraternal organization is more common as "fraternity" in everyday usage refers to fraternal student societies, professional fraternity Professional fraternities, in the North American fraternity system, are organizations whose primary purpose is to promote the interests of a particular profession and whose membership is restricted to students in that particular field of professional education or study. This may be contrasted with service fraternities and sororities, whose primary, College Literary Societies (American) College literary societies in American higher education were a distinctive kind of social organization, distinct from literary societies generally, and they were the precursors of college fraternities and sororities. In the period from the late eighteenth century to the Civil War, collegiate literary societies were an important part of campus, and honor society In the United States, an honor society is an organization of rank, the induction into which recognizes excellence among one's peers. There are numerous societies recognizing various fields and circumstances; the Order of the Arrow, for example, is the national honor society of the Boy Scouts of America. Chiefly, the term refers to scholastic honor

Most Greek letter organizations are social organizations, presenting themselves as societies to help their members better themselves in a social setting.

A variety of Greek letter organizations are distinguished from social groups by their function. They can be specifically organized for service to the community, for professional advancement, or for scholastic achievement.

Certain organizations were established for specific religious or ethnic groups. Some social organizations are expressly Christian The first known usage of the term Χριστιανός can be found in the New Testament in Acts 11:26: "the disciples were first called Christians at Antioch." They were disciples and followers of Jesus Christ. The other two New Testament uses of the word also refer to the public identity of those who follow Jesus. The Jewish king said, such as Alpha Chi Rho Alpha Chi Rho is a men's collegiate fraternity founded on June 4, 1895 at Trinity College in Hartford, Connecticut by the Reverend Paul Ziegler, his son Carl Ziegler, and Carl's friends William Rouse, Herbert T. Sherriff and William A.D. Eardeley. It is a charter member of the North-American Interfraternity Conference, and its national and Lambda Chi Alpha Lambda Chi Alpha is one of the largest men's general fraternities in North America, by its own count, having initiated more than 268,000 members and held chapters at more than 300 universities. It is a member of the North-American Interfraternity Conference (NIC) and was founded by Warren A. Cole, while he was a student at Boston University, on. Jewish A Jew (Hebrew: יְהוּדִי‎, Yehudi ; יְהוּדִים, Yehudim (pl.); Ladino: ג׳ודיו, Djudio (sg.); ג׳ודיוס, Djudios (pl.); Yiddish: יִיד, Yid (sg.); יִידן, Yidn (pl.)) is a member of the Jewish people, an ethnoreligious group originating in the Israelites or Hebrews of the Ancient Near East. The Jewish ethnicity, fraternities, such as Zeta Beta Tau Zeta Beta Tau is a historically Jewish, presently nonsectarian international fraternity. Today the merged Zeta Beta Tau Brotherhood numbers over 130,000 initiated Brothers, and over 80 student chapter locations. The first verse of the fraternity song is "Here's to our fraternity...", Alpha Epsilon Pi Alpha Epsilon Pi , the Jewish college fraternity, has 140 active chapters in the United States and Canada, and a membership of over 7,000 undergraduates. Alpha Epsilon Pi is a Jewish fraternity, though non-discriminatory and open to all who are willing to espouse its purpose and values. It is also the first and only fraternity to establish a, and Sigma Alpha Mu, were established, in part, in response to restrictive clauses A real covenant is a legal obligation imposed in a deed by the seller upon the buyer of real estate to do or not to do something. Such restrictions frequently "run with the land" and are enforceable on subsequent buyers of the property. In jurisdictions that use the Torrens system of land registration, restrictive covenants are generally that existed in many social fraternities' laws barring Jewish membership, which were removed in the mid-20th century (Sanua 2003; Torbenson 2005). A controversy remains between the idea of creating supportive communities for distinct groups on the one hand and the intent to create non-discriminatory communities on the other[citation needed].

There are also organizations with a cultural or multicultural emphasis. For example, Rho Psi, the first Chinese fraternity, established at Cornell in 1916, and Sigma Iota, the first Hispanic fraternity, established at Louisiana State University in 1904 (Torbenson 2005). The latter later merged with other Hispanic fraternities and organizations around the nation to form Phi Iota Alpha Phi Iota Alpha , established December 26, 1931, is the oldest Latino fraternity still in existence, and works to motivate people, develop leaders, and create innovative ways to unite the Latino community. The organization has roots that stem back to the late 1800s to the first Latino fraternity, and the first Latino student organization in the, the oldest Latino fraternity in existence, in 1931[1]. The Phi Sigma Alpha After the organization of ΦΛA other societies joined; the "Club Latino-Americano" Colorado School of Mines; the "Federación Latino-Americana" (1926) Columbia University which joined in 1928; the "Club Hispania" (1929) of Cornell University which joined in 1931; the "Club Hispano-Americano" (1921) of Tri fraternity in Puerto Rico can also trace its roots back to Sigma Iota. There are now 23 Latino fraternities in the National Association of Latino Fraternal Organizations. A distinct set of black fraternities and sororities also exists, although black students are not barred from non-black organizations and there are black members of non-black organizations.

Organizations designed for particular class years do exist, but are usually categorized separately from other types of Greek letter organizations[citation needed]. While these were once common in older institutions in the Northeast, the only surviving underclass society is Theta Nu Epsilon, which is specifically for sophomores. Many senior class societies also survive, and they are often simply referred to as Secret Societies.

Philanthropy

Philanthropy is usually made a part of any Greek letter organization’s program and supported by all active members. Typically, a chapter will either engage in fundraising activities or the members will volunteer for programs. These either benefit the academic community or the public at large. Long-term relationships can also exist between a particular fraternity or sorority and one of the large national disease-specific charitable organizations. Some organizations own and operate their own philanthropy. For example, Pi Kappa Phi owns Push America which works with individual chapters to serve people with disabilities. Phi Sigma Alpha has the Sigma Foundation. Other organizations support established causes, Delta Delta Delta has partnered with St. Jude Childrens Hospital pledging 10 in 10; 10 million dollars in 10 years. Alpha Phi supports the American Heart Association and Zeta Tau Alpha support the Susan G. Komen Foundation.

Competition and cooperation

Early fraternal societies were very competitive for members, for academic honors, and for any other benefit or gain. Some of this competition was seen as divisive on college campuses. Today there is still competition, but that competition is intended to be within limits, and for nobler purposes, such as charitable fundraising[citation needed]. Often, organizations compete in various sporting events. There is also a greater emphasis on interfraternity cooperation. The single greatest effort along these lines was the creation of the National Interfraternity Conference a century ago, which was intended to minimize conflicts, destructive competition, and encourage student members to recognize members of other fraternities and sororities as people who share common interests. The National Panhellenic Council has similar goals to unite members of all sororities.

Structure and organization

Most Greek letter organizations were originally organized on one campus[citation needed]. An organization that has only one established chapter would be called a "local". A local can authorize chapters of the same name at other campuses. After the first authorized chapter, a local would be considered a "national", even if only two chapters are established. Given the development over the past 180 years, North America now has several large national organizations with hundreds of chapters[citation needed]. Two or more nationals can also merge, and some of the larger nationals were created by merger. Several national fraternities are international, usually implying chapters in Canada.

A local organization can petition one of the existing national organizations and be absorbed into their organization dropping all ties to the former local organization. Recently this has become the preferred method for expansion within national organizations because the members have already formed a bond and presence on campus but are changing their name, ritual, and structure[citation needed].

The central business offices of the organizations are also commonly referred to as "Nationals". Nationals may place certain requirements on individual chapters to standardize rituals and policies regarding membership, housing, finances, or behavior. These policies are generally codified in a constitution and bylaws. Greek letter organizations may once have been governed by the original chapter, but virtually all have adopted some version of governance with executive officers who report to a board of trustees, and 'legislative' body consisting of periodic conventions of delegates from all the chapters.

Rituals and symbols

Most Greek letter organizations today maintain traditions which are generally symbolic in nature and closely guarded secrets, calling it their ritual. They include an initiation ceremony, but may also include passwords, songs, handshakes, and the form of meeting, amongst other things. Meetings of the active members are generally secret and not to be discussed without the formal approval of the chapter as a whole.

For organizations with Greek letters composing their name, these letters are the initials of a motto (such as Delta Upsilon), a set of virtues (such as Alpha Kappa Lambda), or the history of its organization (such as Phi Tau).

Greek letter organizations often have a number of distinctive emblems, such as colors, flags, flowers, in addition to a badge (or pin), crest, and/or seal. An open motto (indicating that the organization has a "secret motto" as well) is used to express the unique ideals of a fraternity or sorority.

Pins or Badges

Pins have become increasingly popular to collect, even by individuals that never were members. Groups such as the Fraternity Pin Collector Society have collected thousands of pins worth tens of thousands of dollars in individual collections while organizations such as Kappa Kappa Gamma's "Keepers of the Key" work to reunite lost or stolen badges with their original owners[2].

According to Martin (1918), the primary fraternal jewelers of the late 19th/early 20th centuries were D. L. Auld Co. of Columbus, L. G. Balfour Co. of Attleboro, Mass., Burr, Patterson and Co. of Detroit, Upmeyer Company of Milwaukee, A. H. Fetting Co. of Baltimore, Hoover and Smith Co. of Philadelphia, O. C. Lanphear of Galesburg, Ill., Miller Jewelry Co. of Cincinnati, J. F. Newman of New York, Edward Roehm of Detroit, and Wright, Kay and Co. of Detroit. Currently the most widely used jewelers are Herff Jones, Jostens, and Balfour. Jewelers' initials and stampings are typically found on the back of pins along with the member name and/or chapter information. The history of fraternal jewelers is important when determining age of non-dated jewelry pieces.

Since fraternity and sorority pins are used as the primary symbols for societies, licensing and marketing concerns have developed. As a result, many of the larger organizations have had to put a legal team on retainer as consultants[citation needed].

Objects

Apparels such as shirts, pants, bags, jewelry and key chains are often worn by members with their Greek letters on them. These shirts and other articles may later be used for a pass-down ceremony between seniors and fellow members. Seniors may choose to pass down some or all of the clothing they own that is associated with the sorority. Some of the shirts are ten or more years old and in some chapters, girls will compete for them. In those chapters, generally members feel it is an honor to have older artifacts. At some institutions, it is considered inappropriate and may be prohibited to wear apparel with the society's name when the member is consuming alcohol. It is considered disrespectful to have their letters on when drinking, regardless of their age. Also, it is generally taboo for non-members to wear any apparel with a group's letters.

Membership pins are not worn at all times. Some organizations limit pin-wearing to times of professional or business dress, also known as “Pin Attire”[citation needed]. The pins are kept forever, they are not expected to return them or hand them down.

Chapter houses

Main article: Fraternity and sorority houses

Unique among most campus organizations, members of social Greek letter organizations often live together in a large house or distinct part of the university dormitories. This can help emphasize the "bonds of brotherhood or sisterhood" and provide a place of meeting for the members of the organization as well as alumni. For reasons of cost, liability, and stability, housing is usually owned or overseen by an alumni corporation or the organization’s national headquarters. As a result, some houses have visitor restrictions, and some national organizations restrict or prohibit alcohol on the premises.[3] At some colleges where chapters do not have residential houses for the general membership, they may still have chapter houses where meals are served for their membership and guests.[4]

Joining a Greek letter organization

University students line up to rush a sorority.

The process of joining a Greek letter organization varies from organization to organization. Organizations governed by the National Panhellenic Conference or the North-American Interfraternity Conference commonly begin their process with a "formal recruitment" period, often called "rush week," which usually consists of events and activities designed for members and potential members to learn about each other and the organization. At the end of the formal recruitment period, organizations give "bids," or invitations to membership. Most organizations have a period of "pledgeship" before extending full membership. Some organizations have changed the name of pledgeship due to negative connotations to the process (such as calling pledges "postulants" or "new members"), or have given up the process in favor of other joining requirements[citation needed]. Upon completion of the pledgeship and all its requirements, the active members will invite the pledges to be initiated and become full members. Initiation often includes secret ceremonies and rituals. Organizations governed by the National Pan-Hellenic Conference or the National Association of Latino Fraternal Organizations have very different recruitment processes.

Requirements may be imposed on those wishing to pledge either by the school or the organization itself, often including a minimum grade point average, wearing a pledge pin, learning about the history and structure of the organization, and performing public service. When a school places an age or tenure requirement on joining, this is called "deferred recruitment," as joining is deferred for a semester or year. The pledgeship period also serves as a probationary period in which both the organization and the pledge decide if they are compatible and will have a fulfilling experience[citation needed].

Controversy and criticism

Hazing issues

Main article: Hazing in Greek letter organizations

Hazing is a crime in 44 states[5], and most educational institutions have their own definitions of hazing, many required by state statutes.

While hazing is commonly associated with Greek letter organizations, it is also present in college and university communities among athletic teams, marching bands, and military groups (Hollmann 2002). Nevertheless, it is often cited as one of the most harmful aspects of Greek letter organizations and poses a major threat to their existence (Whipple & Sullivan 1998). As a result, many educational institutions have developed anti-hazing programs, which encourage alternatives to hazing through the planning of purposeful activities, inform students of how to take action and avoid being a bystander, and provide clear consequences for those students and/or organizations who violate hazing policies (Hollmann 2002). Additionally, hazing has become a central focus of programs designed to help Greek letter organizations become more value congruent through institutionalized standards and expectations (Shonrock 1998).Attempts at preventing hazing have also targeted Greek letter organizations at the national level. Cobb & McRee (2007) note the important role of culture change within the North American fraternity and sorority movement and even encourage the closure of chapters that consistently partake in illegal and risky activities and pose threats to their local and university communities.

Due to the nature of hazing and the secretive nature of Greek letter organizations, hazing is largely underreported. Most, if not all, hazing activities take place either during pledge (or “interest”) activities or rituals, which are always secretive. Additionally, since many Greek letter organizations, such as those governed by the National Pan-Hellenic Council (NPHC) and the National Association of Latino Fraternal Organizations (NALFO), prohibit their pledges (also known as “interests” or “new members”) from revealing their association with their organization until they have been initiated, it becomes increasingly difficult for institutions to reach out to members in anti-hazing efforts, and it becomes virtually impossible for these pledges or interests to reach out for help.

Hazing has been cited as a problem not just within historically white men’s organizations, but also within women’s organizations and within historically non-white organizations. For instance, while the National Pan-Hellenic Council explicitly prohibits hazing[6], hazing still occurs and has resulted in numerous deaths and injuries, such as the 1989 death of Joel A. Harris, who died during an Alpha Phi Alpha hazing incident[7]; the 1996 death of Michael Davis, who died during a Kappa Alpha Psi hazing ritual[8]; the 2002 death of Joseph T. Green, who died during an Omega Psi Phi initiation ritual[9]; and the 2002 deaths of Kenitha Saafir and Kristin High, who died during an Alpha Kappa Alpha hazing ritual[10]. The problem of hazing with Black Greek letter organizations (BGLOs) has been explored extensively within the literature (cf. Parks 2008; Jones 2004; Kimbrough 2003). Similarly, despite explicit prohibition of hazing by the National Association of Latino Fraternal Organizations, hazing still occurs in these organizations, leading several chapters to be suspended. In 2007, the Cornell University chapter of Lambda Theta Phi was suspended and two of its members were arrested in connection to an incident in which members threatened pledges with physical violence, deprived pledges of sleep, and forced pledges to take a "vow of silence", speaking only to family, faculty, and fraternity members[11].

Exclusionary nature

Some colleges universities have banned Greek letter organizations with the justification that they are by their very structure set up to be elitist and exclusionary. The most famous, and oldest ban was at Princeton (Leitch 1978), although Princeton has now had fraternities since the 1980s[12]. Fraternities have been banned in recent times from Williams College, and Amherst College[13], although they have returned this century to Amherst[14].

North American Greek letter organizations in other regions

North American Greek letter organizations are present almost exclusively in the United States and Canada, with a minority of organizations having chapters elsewhere, such as the Caribbean, and Africa, there have also been temporary accommodations. The University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign currently has the largest Greek system in the world with 69 fraternities and 36 sororities. Sigma Gamma Rho Sorority, a prominent historically African-American Sorority, currently has chapters in the Virgin Islands, Germany, and Bermuda. There was a brief chapter of Chi Phi at Edinburgh, Scotland during the American Civil War to accommodate Southern students studying abroad, and another for American servicemen who were still college students during World War II, but there has been no real export of the system to Europe. Zeta Phi Beta Sorority, Incorporated, a historically black sorority founded in Washington, DC, USA, was the very first Greek-lettered organization ever to establish a chapter in Africa (1948). Today, Zeta Phi Beta has chapters in the USA, Africa, Europe, and the Caribbean. Likewise, Zeta Psi has chapters in Canada and one in England. Tau Kappa Epsilon has chapters in Canada and a chapter in Germany. Another example: Sigma Thêta Pi is present in Canada and France.

In Puerto Rico there are a number of social fraternities and sororities, a few having chapters in the United States such as Phi Sigma Alpha. Puerto Rico does have many chapters of professional, honorary, and service fraternities and sororities from the United States such as Sigma Lambda Beta International.

See also: Puerto Rican fraternities and sororities

History and development

Main article: History of North American college fraternities and sororities

Beginnings

The Phi Beta Kappa Society, founded on December 5 1776 at the College of William and Mary in Williamsburg, Virginia, is generally recognized to be the first Greek-letter student society in North America. It was founded by several students who had decided that the general literary society on campus, P.D.A., was no longer a serious institution. The main developments associated with Phi Beta Kappa is the use of Greek-letter initials as a society name, and having branches or "chapters" of a society at different campuses following a pattern set by Masonic lodges.

However, Phi Beta Kappa was very different from a typical college fraternity of today in that the membership was generally restricted to upperclassmen, if not seniors; and faculty (made members earlier in their careers) played an active role. The annual Phi Beta Kappa exercises at Yale were public literary exercises, with as many or more faculty members of the society than undergraduate.

As Phi Beta Kappa developed it came to be an influential association of faculty and select students on several college campuses, with membership becoming more of an honor and less of social selection. The increasing influence of the society came to seem by many as undemocratic and contrary to the free flow of intellectual ideas in American academia, and, under great pressure, the undergraduate members at Harvard revealed the secrets of Phi Beta Kappa in 1831. After that time, it ceased to be a fraternity in any real sense, and is now only an honorary society, although quite prominent and respected.

College literary societies, or Latin societies, were common in the early 18th century, both smaller private ones and large socieites that operated campus wide. These organizations used both Roman and Greek themes, held meetings, elected officers, operated libraries, and provided models for many of the early college fraternities.

Chi Phi was established at Princeton University in Princeton, New Jersey on December 24, 1824 on the principles of Truth, Honor, and Personal Integrity[15]. However, shortly after the founding Chi Phi became dormant for a number of years, at which time the Kappa Alpha Society was established at Union College in Schenectady, New York on November 26, 1825. Kappa Alpha possessed most of the distinctive elements of a modern fraternity, and was clearly the model that inspired the development of other societies. (Kappa Alpha Society is distinct from Alpha Order.) Kappa Alpha's founders adopted many of Phi Beta Kappa's practices, but made their organization an exclusively student organization, and adopted a much more elaborate initiation. Its example encouraged the formation of two competitors on campus; the Sigma Phi Society formed in March 1827, followed by Delta Phi in November. These three have been called the Union Triad.

The Fraternity system becomes "national"

Sigma Phi became the first "national" fraternity when it opened a second chapter at Hamilton College in 1831. That encouraged the formation of Alpha Delta Phi in 1832 at Hamilton. Beta Theta Pi was founded at Miami University in Oxford, Ohio in August, 1839 in response to the chartering of the new chapter of Alpha Delta Phi. Alpha Sigma Phi was founded in December 1845 at Yale followed by Phi Delta Theta (1848) and Sigma Chi (1855)at Miami University. Along with Beta Theta Pi, these three fraternities have been called the Miami Triad. Also, around that time the Jefferson Duo was formed at Jefferson college in Canonsburg, Pennsylvania, consisting of Phi Gamma Delta (1848) and Phi Kappa Psi (1852). Although this is a duo, it is recorded along with the other triads formed at the time.

The Mystical 7 was founded at Wesleyan University in 1837, and established the first chapters in the South, at Emory in 1841, and elsewhere. Sigma Alpha Epsilon was founded at the University of Alabama in 1856, and it is the only fraternity founded in the Antebellum South that still operates.

Growth was then mainly stunted by the Civil War. Theta Xi, founded at Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute in Troy, New York on 29 April 1864, is the only fraternity to be established during the War. However, following the War, the system as a whole underwent strong growth in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, both in the number of organizations founded and chapters of existing organizations established. This was aided, in part, by the reopening of schools and the return of veterans as students.

Alpha Phi Alpha,[16], Phi Iota Alpha[17], Phi Sigma Nu, and Zeta Beta Tau were founded as the first fraternities for African-American, Latino-American, Native American, and Jewish students, respectively.

Sororities

Many of the first societies for women were not modelled as fraternities, but were women's versions of the common Latin literary societies. The Adelphean Society (now Alpha Delta Pi) was established in 1851 at Wesleyan College in Macon, Georgia. The Philomathean Society (later named Phi Mu)[18] was founded at Wesleyan College a year later in 1852. The Adelphean Society and the Philomathean Society did not take on their modern Greek names (Alpha Delta Pi and Phi Mu, respectively) until 1904 when they expanded beyond the Wesleyan campus. They are now often referred to as the Macon Magnolias. Many aspects of Alpha Delta Pi and Phi Mu (such as the stars and hands on their badges and the mascot of the lion) are similar due to the fact that while at Wesleyan a founder of Alpha Delta Pi and Phi Mu's Mary Ann DuPont (Lines) were roommates.

On April 28, 1867, I.C. Sorosis (later known by its original Greek motto Pi Beta Phi) was founded at Monmouth College, in Monmouth, Illinois. It is the first sorority founded on the model of the men's fraternity. A year later it established a second chapter at Iowa Wesleyan College.

In the mid-1800s women were beginning to be admitted to previously all-male universities, and there were many women who felt that it was in their best interest to band together. The first collegiate women formed women's fraternities in an effort to counteract the widespread opposition to their presence (Turk 2004). Others disagree with this agonistic historical view[citation needed].

Kappa Alpha Theta was the first Greek letter women's fraternity founded in 1870 at DePauw University. The earliest organizations were founded as "women's fraternities" or "fraternities for women;" the term sorority was coined by professor Frank Smalley in 1874, in reference to the Greek organization being established at Syracuse University, Gamma Phi Beta. Alpha Phi was also established at Syracuse University, in 1872, and along with Alpha Gamma Delta, these three sororities make up the Syracuse Triad. The first organization to adopt the word sorority was Sigma Kappa, established on November 9, 1874 at Colby College in Waterville, Maine.

Alpha Kappa Alpha, Lambda Theta Alpha, Alpha Pi Omega were founded as the first sororities by and for African-American, Latina-American, and Native American members respectively. In 1913, at Hunter College, New York, Phi Sigma Sigma became the first non-denominational sorority, allowing any woman, regardless of race, religion, or economic background into membership.

A number of sororities have been founded at the graduate school level. In 1917, at New York University School of Law five female law students founded Delta Phi Epsilon Sorority.[19] Currently active collegiate membership is only open to undergraduates.

High school fraternities and sororities

Main article: High school fraternities and sororities

High school fraternities and sororities, or secondary fraternities and sororities, are social fraternities for high school-aged children. There are a few active high school fraternities and sororities, including Alpha Omega Theta in New York, The Lounge in Saginaw, Michigan, Zeta Mu Gamma in Puerto Rico, and DeMolay, Sigma Nu Xi and Sigma Alpha Rho (SAR) in the mainland United States. Although these are analogous societies, they are considered wholly different and unrelated societies.

Interfraternity organizations

Interfraternity organizations seek to provide members services such as public relations, leadership training, and methods of interfraternity discussions.

There are also organizations for specific members and membership roles in fraternities and sororities:

Notes and references

  1. ^ "Fraternal History". About Us. Phi Iota Alpha Fraternity, Inc.. http://phiota.org/fraternalhist.php. Retrieved on 30 May 2009.
  2. ^ Katherine, Rosman (11 August 2002). "O Brother (and Sister), Where Art Thy Pins?". The New York Times: p. Section 9 Column 2 Style Desk. http://www.nytimes.com/2002/08/11/style/o-brother-and-sister-where-art-thy-pins.html?fta=y. Retrieved on 30 May 2009.
  3. ^ Bill, Schackner (18 August 2000). "Fraternity houses turn off the taps and sober up". Pittsburgh Post-Gazette. http://www.post-gazette.com/regionstate/20000818fraternity3.asp. Retrieved on May 31, 2009.
  4. ^ "Housing". Greek Life at Vanderbilt University. Office of Greek Life, Vanderbilt University. http://www.vanderbilt.edu/greek_life/housing.php. Retrieved on 31 May 2009.
  5. ^ "State Anti-Hazing Laws". StopHazing.org: Educating to Eliminate Hazing. http://www.stophazing.org/laws.html. Retrieved on 26 May 2009.
  6. ^ "NPHC Joint Position Hazing Statement 2003" (PDF). National Pan-Hellenic Council. 2003. http://www.nphchq.org/docs/NPHCJointPositionStatementAgainstHazing2003.pdf. Retrieved on 27 May 2009.
  7. ^ Fraternity Pledge Dies; School Suspends Frat's Charter, Associated Press, 19 October 1989
  8. ^ Bryant, Tim (19 December 1996), "Family Wins $2.25 Million Settlement in Hazing Death", St. Louis Post-Dispatch (Missouri): 1C
  9. ^ Fraternity sued over hazing death of Tennessee State student, Associated Press State & Local Wire, 9 January 2002
  10. ^ "Sorority hazing is blamed in 2 deaths", The San Diego Union-Tribune (Associated Press): A-4, 11 September 2002
  11. ^ Scherer, Tom (26 March 2007). "C.U. Fraternity Suspended for Hazing". The Cornell Daily Sun (Cornell University). http://cornellsun.com/node/22225. Retrieved on 31 May 2009.
  12. ^ "Princeton’s Fraternities Growing". New York Times: pp. Section 1 Page 56. 28 November 1993. http://www.nytimes.com/1993/11/28/nyregion/princeton-s-fraternities-growing.html. Retrieved on 31 May 2009.
  13. ^ Donofrio, Leana (16 October 2002). "Private colleges ban fraternities, sororities nationwide". ISU Bengal (Idaho State University). http://media.www.isubengal.com/media/storage/paper275/news/2002/10/16/News/Private.Colleges.Ban.Fraternities.Sororities.Nationwide-298259.shtml. Retrieved on May 31, 2009.
  14. ^ "The Amherst Chapter of the Alpha Delta Phi Fraternity". The Alpha Delta Phi Fraternity. Alpha Delta Phi Fraternity. http://www.alphadeltaphi.org/AboutUs/Chapters/tabid/59/agentType/View/PropertyID/1/Default.aspx. Retrieved on 31 May 2009.
  15. ^ "About Us: The Authentic Fraternity". Chi Phi Fraternity. http://chiphi.org/Students/StudentAboutUs.aspx. Retrieved on 31 May 2009.
  16. ^ "Congressman Scott Honors Centennial Anniversary of Alpha Phi Alpha Fraternity, Inc.,". davidscott.house.gov.. http://davidscott.house.gov/News/DocumentSingle.aspx?DocumentID=47752. Retrieved on 2006-12-01.
  17. ^ Anson, Jack L.; Marchesani, Robert F., Jr. (1991). Baird's Manual of American College Fraternities. Menasha, Wisconsin: Banta Corporation. VIII–22. ISBN 0-9637159-0-9.
  18. ^ Not associated with the Philomathean Society of the University of Pennsylvania.
  19. ^ "Who We Are...The Founding of Delta Phi Epsilon". Delta Phi Epsilon. http://www.dphie.org/history.cfm. Retrieved on 27 July 2008.

See also

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Why do fraternities and sororities exist?
Q. Why do fraternities and sororities exist? Aren't they just a type of gang for educated people? How do organized cliques of drunken sex addicts contribute to the higher education process?
Asked by The Infamous Vinnie G - Thu Mar 15 01:35:18 2007 - - 7 Answers - 0 Comments

A. I am not exactly sure why fraternities and sororities exist. I think that people may really be longing for a sense of belonging especially when they are taken away from their friends and family for the first time. It makes them feel superior to others maybe, like their accepted to a clique while others are not. It also gives them an excuse to be a drunken sex addict, "Hey, I didn't really want to drink and bang that guy/girl but I felt obligated since it was a fraternity event"? I really don't know, let me know if you agree with any of that
Answered by an-d - Thu Mar 15 01:46:48 2007

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